M2 THEORIES of COMM
We might say that communication consists of transmitting information from one person to another. In fact, many scholars of communication take this as a working definition, and use Lasswell's maxim, "who says what to whom in what channel with what effect," as a means of circumscribing the field of communication theory.
Communication Theory Framework
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication to be a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world.
Axiology is concerned with what values drive a theorist to develop a theory. Theorists must be mindful of potential biases so that they will not influence or skew their findings (Miller, 21-23).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------COMPREHENDING CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Every country or region within a country has a unique common heritage, joint experience, and shared learning that produces its culture.This background gives its members a complex system of cultural values, traits, morals, and customs.It teaches them how to behave, it conditions their reactions.
Individualism
Americans believe in individualism, an attitude of independence and freedom from control. They think that initiative and self-assertion result in personal achievement. They believe in individual action and personal responsibility and they desire a large degree of freedom in their personal lives.
Other cultures emphasize belonging to organizations, groups, and teams; they encourage acceptance of group values, duties, and decisions. They typically resist independence because it fosters competition and confrontation instead of consensus. In group-oriented cultures like that of Japan, for example, self assertion and individual decisions are discouraged. “The nail that sticks up gets pounded down” is a common Japanese saying. Business decisions are often made by all who have competence in the matter under discussion. In China managers also focus on the group rather than on the individual, preferring a “consultative’ management style over an autocratic style.
Formality
Americans place less emphasis on tradition, ceremony, and social rules than do people in some other cultures. They dress casually and are soon on a first-name basis with others. Their lack of formality is often characterized by directness. In business dealings Americans come to the point immediately; indirectness, they feel, wastes time, a valuable commodity.
This informality and directness may be confusing abroad. in Mexico, for example, a typical business meeting begins with handshakes, coffee, and an expansive conversation about the weather, sports, and other light topics. An invitation to “get down to business’ might offend a Mexican executive. In Japan signing documents and exchanging business cards are important rituals. In Europe first names are never used without invitation. In Arab, South American, and Asian cultures, a feeling of friendship and kinship must be established before business can be transacted.
Communication Style
Americans value straightforwardness, are suspicious of evasiveness and distrust people who might have a “hidden agenda” or who “play their cards too close to the chest.” Americans also tend to be uncomfortable with silence and impatient delays. Some Asian businesspeople have learned that the longer they delay negotiations, the more concessions impatient Americans are likely to make.
Americans also tend to use and understand words literally. Latins, on the other hand, enjoy plays on words; Arabs and South Americans sometimes speak with extravagant or poetic figures of speech that may be misinterpreted if taken literally; Nigerians prefer a quiet, clear form of expression; Germans tend to be direct but understated
Change
In cultures shaped by Western religious values, change is a phenomenon that can be influenced and even controlled. Change is accepted and planned for.In other cultures change is perceived as inevitable, the natural evolution of devout Moslems, for example, planning for the future is sacrilegious because such plans might circumvent the will of Allah.
Time Orientation
Americans consider time a precious commodity to be conserved. They correlate time with productivity, efficiency, and money. Keeping people waiting for business appointments wastes time and is also rude.
In other cultures time may be perceived as an unlimited and never-ending resource to be enjoyed. An American businessperson, for example, was kept waiting two hours past a scheduled appointment time in Latin America. She wasn’t offended, though, because she was familiar with Hispanics’ more relaxed concept of time.
Although Asians are punctual, their need for deliberation and contemplation sometimes clashes with our desire for speedy decisions. They do not like to be rushed. A Japanese businessperson considering the purchase of American appliances, for example, asked for 5 minutes to consider the salesperson’s proposal. The potential buyer crossed his arms, sat back, and closed his eyes in concentration. A scant 18 seconds later, the American launched into sales pitch to the obvious bewilderment of the Japanese.
Cultivating the Right Attitude
Being aware of your own culture and how it contrasts with others is an important first step in preventing intercultural misunderstanding. Avoiding ethnocentrism and stereotyping while developing tolerance further helps business communicators overcome cultural barriers
Avoiding ethnocentrism. The belief in the superiority of one’s own race is known as ethnocentrism, a natural attitude inherent to all cultures. If you were raised in America, the values described previously probably seem “right” to you, and you may wonder why the rest of the world doesn’t function under the same sensible rules. An American businessperson in an Arab or Asian country might feel irritated at time spent over coffee or other social rituals before any “real’ business is transacted. In these cultures, however, personal relationships must be established and nurtured before credible negotiations may proceed.
Ethnocentrism causes us to judge others by own values. We expect others to react as we would, and they expect us to behave as they would. Misunderstandings naturally result. An American who wants to set a deadline for completion of a negotiation is considered pushy by an Arab. That same Arab, who prefers a handshake to a written contract, is seen as naïve and possibly untrustworthy by the American. These ethnocentric reactions can be reduced through knowledge of other cultures and development of flexible, tolerant attitudes.
Developing tolerance. Working among people from different cultures demands tolerance and acceptance of diversity. People with closed views cannot look beyond their own ethnocentrism. But as global markets expand and as our own society becomes increasingly multiethnic tolerance becomes especially significant. Some job descriptions now include statements such as “ Must be able to interact with ethnically diverse personnel.”
To improve tolerance, practice empathy. This means trying to see the world through another’s eyes. It means being nonjudgmental, recognizing things as they are rather than as they “should be.” It includes the ability to accept others’ contributions in solving problems in a culturally appropriate manner. When Kal Kan Foods began courting the pets of Japan, for example, an Asian advisor suggested that the meat chunks in its Pedigree dog food be cut into perfect little squares. Why? Japanese pet owners feed their dogs piece by piece with chopsticks. Instead of insisting on what “should be” (feeding dogs chunky meat morsels), Kal Kan solved the problem by looking at it from another cultural point of view (providing neat small squares).
In business transactions Americans usually assume that economic factors are the primary motivators of people. It’s wise to remember, though, that strong cultural influences are also at work. Saving face, for example, is important in many parts of the world. Because Americans value honesty and directness, they come right to the point and “tell it like it is .” Mexicans and Asians, on the other hand, are more concerned with preserving social harmony and saving face. They are indirect and go to great lengths to avoid the offense of saying no. The Japanese, in fact, have 16 different ways to avoid an outright no. The empathic listener recognizes the language of refusal and pushes no further.
Being tolerant also involves patience. If a foreigner is struggling to express and idea in English, avoid the temptation to finish the sentence and provide the word that you presume is wanted. When we put words in their mouths, our foreign friends often smile and agree out of politeness, but our words may in fact not express their thoughts. Thus, our impatience may prevent us from learning the communicator’s true thoughts. Remaining silent is another means of exhibiting tolerance. Instead of filling every lapse in conversation. Americans should recognize that in Asian cultures people deliberately use periods of silence for reflection and contemplation.
Moving beyond stereotypes. Our perception of other cultures sometimes cause us to form stereotypes about groups of people. A stereotype is an oversimplified pattern applied uncritically. For example, the Swiss are hard-working, efficient and neat; Germans are formal, reserved, and blunt; Americans are loud, but may accurately describe cultural norms, but when applied to individual business communicators, such stereotypes create misconceptions and cause misunderstandings. When you meet and work with people from other cultures, remember that they, too resent being stereotyped. Look beneath surface stereotypes and labels to discover individual personal qualities.Key in XENOPHOBIA for related notes on ethnocentrism
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